#2. Audio Tutorial

If I had to use a term to describe Audio Tutorial system, it would be "self-guided lecture". A defining portion of this system seems to be a relationship between a learner and an audio tape. Besides a school or university, I have also seen museums adopt the AT system. Headphones and devices loaded up with pre-recorded exhibit information has replaced the traditional museum guide. The visitor can walk up to almost any exhibit in no specific order, then proceed to insert a number on the device to instantly activate an explanation or background on the exhibit.

Upsides to the AT approach are flexible pacing and autonomy for the learner, specifically in the ISS phase. One can rewind or fast forward a tape at one's own discretion. The downside is lack of instant feedback. Depending on how an AT is set up, the learner may or may not have access to immediate assistance. Discussions are saved for GAS or SAS. Like PSI, the ISS component of AT requires an amount of self-discipline on the learner's part.

To address Kulik and Cohen's analysis of AT compared to conventional learning, I do not find it surprising that AT either equals or slightly surpasses conventional methods in many respects. I might attribute this to the fact that not only does AT include synchronous, face-to-face time in GAS and SAS, there's an added dimension of ISS which relieves some students of the stress of face-to-face environments. However, I do not believe courses or programs can be completely automated. While role of the instructor has evolved to become more of a facilitator in online education, it would be harmful to take human interaction and discussion completely out of the equation.

Regarding material for learning foreign languages, I've observed that many commercial products are AT in nature. Foreign language study guides available in bookstores, for example, may be composed of a CD and textbook. The CD is usually a recording of one or a few narrators who may be bi-lingual. They give prompts for the learner to repeat a phrase or sentence. In the short term, this type of exercise gives the independent learner a chance to develop and practice the basics. But progress could plateau as the learner becomes more intellectually demanding. There are typically beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels for the study guides. Forking off to disciplines beyond "advanced" is something I have not noticed. Needless to say, there is more to learn beyond the "advanced" level, which could delve into more specific areas like language for business, creative writing, public speaking, etc. Learner needs should be anticipated and considered, and it could mean switching to a different learning system altogether.

References:

Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C. C., & Cohen, P. A. (1979). Research on audio-tutorial instruction: A meta-analysis of comparative studies. Research in Higher Education, 11(4), 321-341.

#1. Keller's PSI

When I first read about Keller's PSI, Personalized System of Instruction, it reminded me of a software program I used in middle school that taught me how to type on a computer. My objective was simple: learn to type quickly and efficiently. I learned a few key strokes and then did drills to test my aptitude. The lessons built on each other with progressively more key strokes. By the end of the program, I could type at least 60 words a minute using any letter, number, or symbol and without staring at my fingers on the keyboard. Though the format bears similarity to what I understand to be a PSI, the typing program is largely a lesson in the motor skills domain of Gagne's taxonomy. PSIs have been developed to encompass more higher-order thinking.

One quality that stands out in a PSI is being learner-oriented. Along with positive reinforcement and opportunities to engage with the material, the student is allowed to learn at his/her own pace. This is especially beneficial and encouraging to online learners with full time careers and/or a family responsibilities. However, I do have several concerns about self-pacing. First, it requires a great degree of self-discipline. Is it possible that a student, for some reason, may be learning at a pace that is too slow? An instructor should advise the student about expectations and possible consequences. Also, students with varying levels of knowledge may be difficult to place in a group environment for collaboration. I think a PSI program with independent studies can be more flexible to individual pacing. On the other hand, a program which involves interaction with other students should set some common learning goals.

I would recommend the PSI system for Chinese language instruction because I like how it focuses on mastering one level before progressing into the next. Language is very much about building a strong foundation, learning basic characters, constructing simple sentences, and then creating more complex ones. However, I would encourage the students to progress at a similar pace because interaction and dialogue is important for learning to speak the language. Students who all work up to a capacity of about 50 vocabulary words would be able to converse more comfortably and effectively with each other. As for tools and resources, audio and video examples of the language in use, video chat, voice chat, and instant messaging would enhance the interactive experience.

References:

Davis, R. L., & Ragsdale, K. M. (n.d.).  Design of an effective, Web-based, global learning environment using the Keller Plan.