#13. Learning Objects

Learning objects reminds me of the language learning program Rosetta Stone. It is a highly commercialized  product. The website offers demos but a purchase or subscription of the program is required in order to take full advantage of the features. From skimming their product page, the program integrates multimedia tools within the lessons with items like audio CD, headphones/microphone, live online chats with native speakers, games, and even a mobile companion on iPods and iPhones. To get a better idea of the program, I did experience the demo and found several things interesting: it's very interactive, the images are functional and appealing, and no translations were needed.

Rosetta Stone boasts lessons for a multitude of languages, which seems to follow the learning objects process of customizing learning theory to a variety of content. The program followed learning objects' procedural learning by first presenting information (hands-off), then allowing the student to respond with some guidance (do the next step), and finally giving the student an opportunity to arrive at the answer with little or no guidance (you-do-it) (Merrill, 1999, p.409). Furthermore, exercises give students instant feedback and wrong answers are "retained" and asked again until the student gives the correct one (Merrill, 1999, p.417).

A multimedia-rich program such as Rosetta Stone probably required years of research and a very knowledgeable, experienced team of experts to develop and implement. I think it would be difficult for most instructors to be involved in such a large-scale undertaking without the right amount of financial backing and manpower. However, open and enthusiastic collaboration is an initial step to understand the types of projects that can be explored.

Before Koppi's article, I did not fully understand the weight of the issue in regards to teachers' hesitation in sharing their teaching material. I am more inclined to think of "social responsibility" as a motivator, but it seems that a majority prefer a "reward" in the form of recognition or salary raises (Koppi, 2004, p.455). Considering the sacrifice of time and resources, rewards are realistic demands, but it is unfortunate if it becomes a dilemma that distracts teachers from pedagogical goals like offering students a quality learning experience. Administrators and the school system have a responsibility to discuss with teachers about the necessary investments and proper compensations.

References:

Koppi, T., Bogle, L., Hodgson, N., & Lavitt, N. (2004). Institutional use of learning objects: Lessons learned and future directions. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 13 (4), 449-463.

Merrill, M. D. (1999). Instructional transaction theory (ITT): Instructional design based on knowledge objects. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models (2nd ed., pp. 397-424). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#12. Cognitive Flexibility

As with other models that encourage real world experience, the Cognitive Flexibility model has great intentions even though it seems to be one of the more complicated to implement. Ill-structured knowledge, multiple representations, case-based scenarios, and complex situations are presented with CF models of learning. Epistemic cognition, which are perceptions that learners have about the nature of learning and structure of knowledge is also a primary consideration (Jacobson, 1995, p.304). CF is more concerned with knowledge construction and transfer rather than rote memorization (Jacobson, 1995, p.305).

From the CF lecture, an example on the various uses of the word "bat" helped me visualize how CF could be applied to foreign language courses. However, I am not sure how to further develop the CF model for foreign language instruction that could use it to the fullest potential. I do not think the CF would be the most ideal method for several reasons. Rote memorization is pertinent in some degree and presenting complex situations may confuse and discourage the student. Most of the decision making process in learning a language is linear; there are very limited number of ways to ask for someone's name in a conversation. As a result, the intensive effort needed for development of a CF could not be justified for a foreign language course.

Modern technology serves CF well with more appealing interfaces and improvements to issues of navigation and accessing information as addressed by Jonassen due to growing expertise in the industry (Jonassen, 1992, p.314) Take the EASE History Tour for example, it is wonderfully designed, with a simple yet pleasing layout. Though there is a large amount of content, the site does not seem cluttered.  Topics are clearly organized, and there is a library of lessons that pertain to each topic which instructors new to the site could use as a starting point.  The "Tour" page which gives explicit instructions on how to look for information and what icons mean is especially helpful to both instructors and students. To develop a CF, I think the bulk of the work would be invested in the planning stages, like designing the program blueprint, web development strategies, and collecting case study material. As technology and user preferences change, the site would need to be updated accordingly.

While CF provides a wealth of resources and problem solving opportunities, it seems less involved with interaction and hands-on learning than other models. I would suggest a live video chat with experts or even a video game simulation that can respond dynamically to a learner. Video game technology is very adept with user-friendliness and navigation components. Perhaps this area should be explored to facilitate the development of a computer or web-based course. Just as we consider the creation of learning-oriented TV programs, video games can be refashioned for educational purpose as well, if individuals and entities are willing to make the investment.

References:

Jonassen, D.H., Ambruso, D.R., & Olesen, J. (1992). Designing a hypertext on transfusion medicine using cognitive flexibility theory. Journal of Educational Multimedia & Hypermedia, 1(3), 309-322.

Jacobson, M.J., & Spiro. R.J. (1995). Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the transfer of complex knowledge: An empirical investigation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12(4), 301-333.

#11. Case-Based

Once an idea has taken hold of the brain it's almost impossible to eradicate. An idea that is fully formed - fully understood - that sticks; right in there somewhere.---from Inception

Since case-based learning associates with human memory and narrative story-telling, I could not resist a reference to "Inception" an inventive film about ideas, memory, and perceptions. In some ways, the quote is true. Whether it's an idea, memory, or a story, I think it will "take hold of the brain" if it is truly significant and intriguing to the person. However, if we do not value or use the information, we are likely to forget it.

To imitate the way that natural human memory works, the CBR approach gathers and organizes information through indexing. Criteria is set on what information to include and where it belongs. To utilize the indexed database, the CBR process is composed of four REs---REtrieve, REuse, REvise, and REtain (Wang, 2003, p. 46). The learner views the case study and evaluates it with the current situation. Then the learner may choose to use the solution from the case study or decide on a better one. Finally, the new problem and solution is added to the case library. Jonassen mentions that "stories can function as a substitute for direct experience" for novice learners (Jonassen, 1992, p. 69). While it may be good preliminary practice, I do not think students should be led to become completely reliant on second hand knowledge. Every situation has its variables and learning vicariously lacks the full sensory experience. They should still be encouraged to engage in the experience first hand at some point, as with Problem-Based Learning and Cognitive Apprenticeships.

Perhaps one of the challenges of developing a case-based course is determining the appropriate material to include within the case library and an efficient system easily accessible to the learner and manageable for the instructor. A lesson can be learned from the KITE CBR Engine where the formative evaluation showed that knowledge scouts tasked with collecting stories "were not retrieving important information within the stories, such as resources used or lessons learned" (Wang, 2003, p. 57). Each member of the CBR project needs to have a solid understanding of their roles because it directly affects other member's tasks and the case library.

For a foreign language course, I imagine a case library as a collection of stories, both fiction and non-fiction, categorized by theme, such as home, school, eating at a restaurant or any situation that involves use of the language and also by difficulty to accommodate a range of learners from beginning to advanced levels. It is unique how the KITE CBR search engine is tailored to work like the human brain, generating results based on "semantic meanings of cases" instead of like Google and Yahoo sites which rely on number of keyword appearances that often return irrelevant content (Wang, 2003, p. 56). To create an intelligent search engine would require web development expertise. Otherwise, a simplified solution could be to populate the site with hyperlinks that connect the webpages and provide navigation. Video and speech to text tool can be incorporated with more complex narratives. After a student reviews a story, they can rewrite one based on their own experiences and upload it to the case library.

I think a case library can be a meaningful resource for both non-experts who want to learn from other professional perspectives and experts who need a review or reference. Problems and solutions are embedded in probably every industry and profession. Case-Based is a good approach to archive education for posterity.

References:

Jonassen, D.H., Ambruso, D.R., & Olesen, J. (1992). Designing a hypertext on transfusion medicine using cognitive flexibility theory. Journal of Education Multimedia & Hypermedia, 1 (3), 309-322.

Wang, F.K., Moore, J.L., Wedman, J., & Shyu, C.R. (2003). Developing a case-based reasoning knowledge repository to support a learning community: An example from the technology integration community. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52 (3), 45-62.

#10. MOST Multimedia

Specifically targeting literacy and reading comprehension in young children, I'm surprised how much the MOST Multimedia system speaks to me on a personal level. When I first attended public school, I could barely understand or speak English. It was a side effect of growing up in a Chinese family speaking mainly Cantonese. My parents prepared me as much as they could while struggling with English themselves.

For the first few years, I was probably an at-risk student, not able to keep up with the material and pace of the class as well as my peers did, so I can empathize with the attitudes and sentiments of students who are part of the MOST Multimedia programs. I did not have the opportunity to participate in such a program; computers were rarely used at the time. Fortunately, some very caring elementary school teachers tutored me one on one in English and saved me from my learning situation. Thanks to my teachers, my English competency was academically acceptable by second grade.

But...that's not the end of my story. I can also attest, from personal experience, the effectiveness of using multimedia to learn a language. Here's the twist: it was to learn Chinese, not English.

Despite the struggles with the English language, I remain proud of my Chinese heritage and continued speaking Cantonese with my family. When I was around thirteen, my parents installed a satellite dish that received Mandarin Chinese channels. I was enamored by the entertaining shows, so novel and different from American TV and yet strangely familiar. The problem was, I could not enjoy the channels to the full extent because I did not understand the Mandarin dialect at all.



To briefly explain the difference between Cantonese and Mandarin, they are two different dialects of Chinese. They have different tones and pronunciation but share the same written language. My parents grew up with Cantonese and learned Mandarin in school. They only spoke Cantonese with me because it was their native tongue.

Continuing on...instead of simply giving up the Mandarin channel, I decided to learn the language. Through watching the TV series with distinct characters and plot, I trained my ear to the languge and repeated bits and pieces of dialogue to myself. A vital component to this process was the Chinese subtitles in the shows. I matched them with Cantonese song lyrics in order to learn the meaning and develop reading comprehension. The written form was the bridge between Cantonese and Mandarin. I adopted a strategy to evaluate and categorize characters, like learning first those characters that appeared most frequently, next selecting combination characters that expressed one meaning, and then noticing the pattern of a complete sentence.

To me, learning Mandarin was like putting together a puzzle.

Though there was no lesson plan, I did have a learning goal: to understand the Chinese shows and maximize entertainment value! Eventually, I began to comprehend the distinctions and similarities between Mandarin and Cantonese. After about three years of this type of self-paced independent study, I was able to comprehend and enjoy Mandarin TV. When I encountered a new word, I saw it as a learning opportunity. This process brought me from knowing a handful of basic characters to being able to read an entire Chinese newspaper article.

Well, that's my story. The method was unconventional and I would not necessarily recommend it as a "program" for a student. However, I do believe that multimedia in the form of TV shows, video stories, and songs plus motivation and some sense of direction made it work for me. But there were some ways it did not work. While taking Mandarin Chinese courses in college, my reading and listening comprehension were well-developed but my speaking ability was quite weak. I think it was a result of the overly isolated learning environment, lack of collaboration, and no direct use of the language. This emphasizes the importance of dialogue practice and interaction with other individuals when learning a new language.

Referring back to the article, I agree with Bransford on the benefits of multimedia as a learning tool. Presented with dynamic visual information, students are able to create mental models and interpret language better than with plain text (Bransford, 1996, p.231). We should also understand the concerns associated with multimedia; video and movies for educational purposes should direct students towards being active rather than passive viewers (Bransford, 1996, p.228). Since the MOST Multimedia model has a very specific target audience, young children who are at-risk learners, the age, behaviors, and perhaps ethnic background need to be taken into consideration. Each case may be unique so I would recommend a pre-program evaluation of students before program development and implementation.

References:

Bransford, J. D., Sharp, D. M., Vye, N. J., Goldman, S. R., Hasselbring, T. S., Goin, L., O'Banion, K., Livernois, J., Saul, E., & the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1996). MOST Environments for accelerating literacy development. In S. Vosniadou, E. DeCorte, R. Glaser, & H. Mandl (Eds.), International perspectives on the design of technology-supported learning environments (pp. 223-255). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#9. STAR Legacy

Since the STAR legacy system stems from Anchored Instruction, it includes benefits similar to its predecessor.  The advantage of STAR legacy is its clearly defined structure that makes the process of planning an educational program more organized for instructional designers and instructors. I think instructors would find the STAR Legacy system approachable with potential to evolve into a variety of educational scenarios.

Schwartz opens with a discussion about the roles of the instructor and instructional designer in creating a program. There is need "to strike a balance" and share responsibilities instead of letting it all rest on one party, and the term used to describe the product of this partnership is "flexibly adaptive designs" (Schwartz, 1999, p.188). Such designs would be able to draw on respectively unique skills, expertise on multimedia applications and program functionality from instructional designers and content and pedagogical techniques from instructors.

A web-based environment seems quite natural for the STAR legacy system. Free website creators such as Google sites and Weebly make development of an entire program and archiving projects very feasible and economical. On the web, students work can "go public" through a published website, blogs, Google Docs, and online journals (Schwartz, 1999, p.203). The ability to revisit and share lessons is a great way to allow students to review and reflect on the material. This is helpful to many areas of study including foreign language. If I created a Chinese language course with the STAR Legacy system, I can develop it around many culturally relevant themes. However, it would not be completely in Chinese so as not to be too overwhelming and intimidating for students learning Chinese as a second language.

STAR Legacy has a consistent learning process which helps to reinforce student's understanding of course goals and what is expected of them. A meaningful challenge and appropriate use of multimedia are some factors that may determine if students maintain interest in the course.

References:

Schwartz, D., Lin, X., Brophy, S., & Bransford, J. D. (1999). Toward the development of flexibly adaptive instructional designs. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models (2nd ed., pp. 183-214). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#8. Anchored Instruction

Think outside the box---that is my impression of the goal for anchored instruction. Though it bears similarity to PBL, GBS, and probably other systems, several aspects of anchored instruction make it impressive and insightful. Implementation in various age groups, from first grade to college level, resulted in positive responses and reflects the system's versatility and relevance to a wide range of learners. Anchored instruction benefits both instructors and students. Very realistic situations are presented in the program, and there is opportunity to solve sophisticated problems that experts may encounter (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1992, p.248). The goal is to get the learner to start thinking like an expert, to promote "sustained exploration" and evolve their own knowledge as experts do. Thinking outside the box, so to speak.

Anchored instruction addresses many higher order thinking skills and prides on "macrocontext" or complex contexts that could be explored and revisited in multiple perspectives (Goldman, 1996, p.259). The learner should be able to transfer the knowledge and skills learned  to a variety of disciplines repeatedly, also known as "generative learning" (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1992, p.67). To take a very general example like "how to solve a problem", a student learns the procedures to take when faced with a problem such as define the issue, consider possible solutions and outcomes from the solutions, and select the best solution. This particular problem solving skill can be administered in all types of situations.

Video technology is the driving tool for the anchored instruction system, and it is appropriate to the learning goals and purpose. However, conception, copywriting, design, and production of the videos contribute to the bulk of the positive educational experience so those tasks should not be taken lightly. The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University sums up why video is used very succinctly: video is "dynamic, visual, and spatial" and may help students "form rich, mental models of the problem situations" (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1992, p.249). Since it is not possible for an expert to be at a student's disposal throughout their education, video is a good compromise as it also has the ability to reach a wide audience. Today we have even more flexibility with how to share and redistribute video with course webpages, websites, and file sharing sites.

The articles focused on anchored instruction programs developed for math and science. How it would apply to other subject areas would require some thought. The "Scientist in Action" series mentioned in the readings gives me the idea to consider something similar for foreign language lessons. Episodic scenarios can be created that build on one another in the areas of vocabulary, grammar, and cultural information. Topics for a beginner can be a student's first visit to China or a Chinese family's home. For more advanced students, the scenarios can be more complex. By participating in the constructed scenarios, students would be able to immerse themselves in the language and to internalize instead of just translate the language. The video medium works perfectly for foreign language instruction. I think students can better associate vocabulary with images rather than plain text. A dictionary would be provided as part of the reference materials and it encourages the student to find information independently.

Construction of a strong program is key in order to elicit the desired responses and active participation from students and instructors. It seems that anchored instruction programs like "The Jasper Woodbury Series" and "The Overturned Tank" have been well-received. Evidently, the amount of planning and design put into them has paid off. Furthermore, the program developers were interested in and listened to stakeholder feedback and suggestions. They responded quickly and followed up with improvements to the system which shows that evaluation is also important to the entire development process.

References:

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1992). The Jasper experiment: An exploration of issues in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40(1), 65-80.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1992). Anchored instruction in science and mathematics:
Theoretical basis, developmental projects, and initial research findings. In R. A. Duschl, & R. J. Hamilton (Eds.), Philosophy of science, cognitive psychology, and educational theory and practice (pp. 244-273). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Goldman, S. R., Petrosino, A. J., Sherwood, R. D., Garrison, S., Hickey, D., & Bransford, J. D. (1996). Anchoring science instruction in multimedia learning environments. In E. De Corte, R. Glaser, H. Mandl, & S. Vosniadou (Eds.), International Perspectives on the Design of Technology-Supported Learning Environments (pp. 257-284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#7. Goal Based Scenarios

Being offered the chance to learn in a way that motivates and provides opportunity for real life practice, as with the GBS system, makes me wonder why I was not educated that way my entire life. The system calls on higher level thinking skills for tasks such as processing one's role, the cover story, and the mission, and making critical decisions in scenario operations.  I recall very few GBS experiences in my education. However, I will refrain from wondering why not. There are probably valid reasons why GBS programs may be administered infrequently in traditional education.

After observing the various programs, such as the Sickle Cell Counselor and the Statistics Specialist, I  believe that GBS is the most complex learning system for instructors and designers to develop. It involves multimedia applications such as video and audio. Furthermore, the media is interactive and multiple scenarios and outcomes need to be created for the learner to choose from. This is definitely a very intensive process. If it is to be executed successfully, a team may also be established to evaluate and test the program. One of the paper's authors Chung-Yuan Hsu has a background in game design, and I can see how that would be relevant and applicable to GBS development. The amount of resources, manpower, and time to invest in a GBS program should not be underestimated.

The learner is again the primary focus in this system. Schank states that motivation and interest play a big  part in how well the student learns. The lesson shifts away from factual knowledge to more about learning how to do (Schank, 1999, p.166). It equips students with the skills to handle realistic situations that they may possibly encounter. Given these efforts to engage the learner, GBS goes beyond artificial motivators for learning such achieving grades and adhering to social situations and strives to make learning an intrinsic, personally meaningful experience.

I think GBS, if successfully created, is a flexible, multifaceted system that can be used across all disciplines. A realistic role within any subject matter can always be defined for the learner. As Schank explains, stories that build up the topic are much more memorable to learners than decontextualized information on the topic (Schank, 1999, p.177). In Chinese language class, a lesson begins with a list of vocabulary. It is then applied in dialogue practices, short paragraphs, and cultural supplements, which is much more effective than rote learning of only the vocabulary. Keeping with the goals of GBS, it's necessary to ensure that students are interested in the pre-written texts. Composing new passages is also an option.

Technology-wise, there are many capable tools to create video and audio for GBS programs but consideration should be extended to include interactivity. Computer games are ideal but require programming, writing, graphic design, art direction, and a combination of many other specialized skills to create them. Second life may be the most well-known computer game to date that is used for educational purposes.

References:

Schank, R.C., Berman, T.R., & Macpherson, K.A. (1999). Learning by doing. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models (2nd ed., pp. 162-182). Mahwah, NJ. Erlbaum.

#6. Cognitive Apprenticeship

If traditional apprenticeship came first, then I think cognitive apprenticeship is a descendent that has evolved for modern times. As Collins puts it, traditional apprenticeship "characterized learning before there were schools" when a novice learner learns a skill through observing and shadowing a master (Collins, 1990, p.491). However, cognitive apprenticeship differs by the ability to apply "methods in diverse settings" (Collins, 1990, p.459). It presents very promising techniques to prepare the student for real life scenarios. There are six methods of teaching in the system: modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection, and exploration (Collins, 1990, p.481). As the student progresses in the course, the instructor retreats to the background in the "fading" process and allows the student to be more self-directed in their learning. Combined with group collaboration and individual study, I think cognitive apprenticeship creates a well-rounded relationship between teachers and students and a better learning environment.

One disadvantage to this system could be time-consuming to plan, create, and implement. If assessments are in the form of essays and projects rather than closed format multiple choice or true/false exams, then the instructor spends more time to evaluate students as well. However, I do think the advantages outweigh the disadvantages because students have access to a range of resources and techniques to learn the course material and it can probably cater to different learning behaviors. Students receive guidance from the instructor (coaching/scaffolding), can discuss and work with peers (articulation), and can individually reflect on their studies and further pursue it through their own interests (reflection/exploration).

From this lesson, I have been reflecting on my internship experience, one at an art museum and another at a broadcast production company. I will speak about the production internship in more detail because I was actually assigned a project. My project was to maintain a database that archived the company's radio production work. The supervisor modeled tasks by first showing me how to log and format each database entry, burn a backup disc, and store it. Then my supervisor "faded", and I was allowed to continue the project independently. My supervisor and his colleagues were available to offer support and information. Participation in weekly meetings afforded me the opportunity to "articulate" my progress and offer related comments and ideas. Though some internships do provide course credit, which would at least have some pedagogical ties and value to traditional education, my production internship was more like a traditional apprenticeship. The company was not directly affiliated with any educational institution and there were no course goals or objectives to follow. Applying whatever knowledge and skills I possessed, I alone was responsible for what I learned and didn't learn.

Instructor involvement is important for foreign language study. Most of the time, the student is a recipient of knowledge which is actually necessary. Without a strong foundation of vocabulary, grammar, and awareness of cultural context, it would be near impossible for students to further explore and reflect on the language on their own. When an instructor says, "Repeat after me...", it is a form of modeling. I frequently lead repetition exercises in my Chinese language class and then give opportunities for students to lead as they become more familiar with the material. I think group work can be assigned to give added practice of listening and conversation. For beginner groups, teachers can provide a written script that students follow and read. As students become more skilled, teachers can assign a scenario with undefined roles that students need to select and expound upon. Example of such a scenario could be telling the students they are at a library and asking them who is there and what conversations could take place. Once students develop a solid language background, can be self-sufficient and able to solve problems such as looking up an unknown word in a dictionary, an even more advanced project could be letting students plan and build an original role play scenario.

As mentioned in the readings, videos, both pre-recorded or streamed live, could be one of the best technological solutions for web-based application of cognitive apprenticeship. As Herrington describes, videos of "experts performing skills" give students a good visual of "the experienced practitioner at work" (Herrington, p.5). Plus, there is the option to replay or revisit the video as needed by the student. So many devices, such as camcorders, cameras, and cell phones, offer video recording cability and give the video medium greater possibility for information exchange and establish it as the medium of choice. Next to consider should be production quality such as clear concept, well-written script, good pacing, camerawork, and continuity and also video quality like resolution of video, load time, and ease of access. Lack of quality would be frustrating and discouraging to both instructors and students and diminish the educational experience.

References:

Collins, A., Brown, J.S., & Newman, S.E. (1990). Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L.B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp.453-494). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (n.d.). Critical Characteristics of Situated Learning: Implications for the instructional design of multimedia.

#5. Problem Based Learning

In learning about all the systems so far, problem based learning or PBL seems to give the student the most active role. After being presented with a problem, students are organized into groups, and begin to discuss, research, and analyze as a team. There is opportunity for independent work, as each student attempts to further dissect the problem on their own (Ryan, 1994, p.3).  The instructor and tutors fade into the background and act as facilitators rather than active lecturers. Their role is to guide the groups, help them maintain focus, and possibly step in to resolve any disruptions. Even though students are proceeding through the lesson with limited knowledge, they discover newfound information through research and critical thinking.

Several factors should be in place in order to reap the benefits of problem based learning. For one, students should be equipped with ample resources, such texts, libraries, video and audio supplements, websites, and more, and the ability to access them. In addition to resources, methods of deduction and organization of material in the form of notes, charts, or diagrams, can better help students arrive at conclusions. Since students are still acquiring knowledge in this stage of learning, instructors and tutors should be available to offer assistance and encouragement, and Hung mentions various skills that a successful tutor would possess (Hung, 2003, p.20). Students need to feel a level of comfort with PBL and be clear with the objectives and goals of this system. That will help them take ownership of learning through PBL.

It is true, we have come a long way from the Collaborative Learning Laboratory and E-talk. However, the principles still stand. Different from F2F discussions, tools such as CLL and E-talk allow users to document, save, and share information. Today's tools enhance the process, with a greater flexibility to manipulate documents visually, to customize them to one's needs, and a range of file formats that fit devices from phones to computers.

Considering the many disciplines that adopt PBL, such as healthcare, law, and business, I find it less applicable to foreign language study. I suppose it's because I don't readily connect the term "problem solving" with foreign languages. The solution, which I consider to be the meaning of a character or grammar structure is usually presented to the student. If PBL could be employed, it may work for radical exercises. Students learn the origin of an unknown Chinese character by analyzing the radical, the component of the character that gives it meaning. Using radicals and counting strokes is a method for locating Chinese characters in a dictionary. In order to participate in this exercise, students need a basic knowledge of radicals and to know their way around a Chinese dictionary. Students can work on this exercise in a group and devise creative ways to memorize the meaning, pronunciation, and written form of the character.

The greatest benefit of PBL is helping students acquire social skills through group interaction and the motivation for deeper learning (Hung, 2003). Though this system may not serve every field of study equally, it does address communication skills that prepare the student for the professional workplace and for handling real life situations.

References:

Hung, W., Bailey, J., & Jonassen, D.H. (2003). Exploring the tensions of problem-based learning: Insights from research. New Directions for Teaching and Learning (95), 13-23.

Ryan, C., & Koschmann, T. (1994). The collaborative learning laboratory: A technology-enriched environment to support problem-based learning. In Recreating the Revolution: Proceedings of the 15th Annual National Educational Computing Conference (NECC) (pp.160-167). Boston, MA.

#4. Cooperative Learning

In Johnson's article, an analogy was made between a family farm and cooperative learning (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 1998, p.2). The family farm reference struck me in particular because it reminded me of my own experience working for the family restaurant. My cultural background has been a lifelong lesson in family values, depending on each other, and learning to tolerate each other. In certain ways, it has shaped my behaviors and how I work in a group. Perhaps social upbringing is one factor that affects how a person perceives cooperative learning. In any case, this week's lesson also sheds light on what I do not know about working in a group.

The explanation of individual, competitive, and cooperative learning puts many of my past educational and professional experiences into perspective. I would advocate a healthy balance of all three types because there are advantages in each. In individual learning, a person learns to think and arrive at solutions independently. Competitive learning may enhance skills like being assertive and proactive. There is a definite need for cooperative learning. As humans, we are inately social creatures, evident in the way we build units like a family, community, and a country. But it needs to be done right. So I enjoyed the articles' focus on ways to make cooperative learning successful.

Millis (2002) gives excellent suggestions on how teachers can conduct a cooperative classroom, pointing out the need for positive interdependence, individual accountability, criterion referenced grading, and monitoring of group behaviors (Millis, 2002). Prior to implementing the system with students, teachers should understand how to assign groups, such as "considering issues of gender mix" (Haller, 2000, 11) and group size, and then how the group is conducted throughout the exercise. Support and training should be made available to teachers, if they are going to "model the appropriate social skills" and pass them onto the students.

Does cooperative learning translate into the professional world? Most likely. I think there are some careers that thrive on competitive edge, such as businesses being able to offer a product or service that would win over a client, while others fields, such as healthcare, depend on teamwork of doctors, nurses, and other specialists to save a patient's life. On the other hand, a business may have separate departments and teams contributing to the final product and a healthcare system may rely on business principles to promote itself above other providers. I feel that individualistic, competitive, and cooperative skills are frequently intertwined within an industry, though one may be more regarded than the other depending on the line of work.

When studying a foreign language, the ultimate goal is to learn to communicate with others in the language. Most parents and students insist on conversation skills as the highest priority, and cooperative learning may contribute to that goal. There was one Chinese language textbook that had grammar exercises called sentence buildup which introduced one character at a time to progressively build itself into a complete sentence. I called on each student to add a character to the sentence, in both verbal and written form. It became a natural group exercise as each student played a part in creating the final sentence. I think this activity can be recreated into a multimedia game. Even online flashcards have been very useful, especially those with the option to attach audio.

Starting Point, one of the resources this week, mentions role play. Coincidentally, it has been one of the exercises I've been contemplating for Chinese class. Last semester, a small individual role play project was assigned. Though the idea was acceptable, some issues did arise which prompted me to reconsider aspects of the project, such as assigning a topic instead of letting the students choose one themselves and providing more content for them to work with. Though I intended to offer students creative freedom with an open-ended topic, it had in fact overwhelmed them instead. With my newfound understanding of cooperative learning, I look forward to applying the proper techniques on an interactive role play project in the near future.

References:

Haller, C. R., Gallagher, V. J., Weldon, T. L., &  Felder, R. M. (2000). Dynamics of peer education in cooperative learning workgroups. Journal of Engineering Education 89(3), 285-293.

Millis, B. J. (2002). Enhancing learning and more! Through cooperative learning. Manhattan, KS: The IDEA Center.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1998). Cooperative learning returns To college: What evidence is there that it works? Change, 27-35.

Starting Point: Teaching Entry Level Geoscience. http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/cooperative/index.html

#3. Guided Design

In my opinion, the most appealing element of guided design, also its most defining, is group interaction. As similarly stated in the articles, a problem is presented to the student where several solutions may be possible. According to Trivette, guided design could essentially apply to an array of disciplines from engineering to theater. I've experienced several instances of guided design being applied throughout my education. In a 9th grade physics class, we were split into teams to try and build the fastest car out of rubber bands and found objects. Our car did not perform its best on the first try which meant more recalculations, consideration of materials, and testing alternate solutions. Another example of guided design is collaborative projects in college art courses. It felt very different from many other disciplines for several reasons. One is that the arts thrives on unbridled possibilities for expression. Also it can be challenging to collaborate when artists have their own subjective, sometimes contrasting views. Nevertheless, parameters such as theme, composition, color, use of material and originality are set in an effort to draw perspectives toward a common ground. Critiques are indispensable parts of the project.

As some research by Trivette suggests, guided design may not be an effective system for foreign language courses. Upon consideration, I can see how guided design may not be a completely relevant system. Interaction and dialogue is encouraged while studying a language, but I think it involves more verbal practice and repetition of prepared content rather than problem solving. As the foreign language student progresses and is more able to form original, complete thoughts with a sufficient vocabulary, perhaps guided design can be weaved in to encourage the student to express themselves in various ways. For the instruction of the Chinese language, a possible guided design exercise could be presenting students with the scenario of visiting a Chinese home and asking the students to exchange greetings and display proper cultural etiquette.

Traditionally, group work in guided design probably took place in face to face classes.  However programs such as Skype and Elluminate, which allow voice and video chat on the internet, provide improved opportunities for guided design in online learning. There is flexibility for group work to be done synchronously or asynchronously. Information is shared easily through email, blogs, and Google Docs to name just a few.

While group work is emphasized and reinforced in guided design, I think students must possess or acquire the necessary communication skills in order to thrive in a learning community. Online programs often inform students of netiquette which is particularly useful for the new online learner. The engineering program in Cascada's article sets a good example by incorporating The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People into its lessons to help students develop professional traits. I believe close observations and prompt feedback contribute to the success of groups. Suggestions can be made as needed on how to work productively in a group and special attention should be paid to students who are struggling. Introductory courses especially should be concerned with content as well as how students learn and apply the content.

References:

Casada, M. E., & DeShazer, J. A. (1995). Teaching professionalism, design, and communications to Engineering freshmen. In Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Education, Biological and Agricultural Engineering Division (pp. 1381-1385). Anaheim, CA.

Trivette, C. M. (2005). Effectiveness of guided design learning strategy on the acquisition of adult problem-solving skills. Bridges 3(1).

#2. Audio Tutorial

If I had to use a term to describe Audio Tutorial system, it would be "self-guided lecture". A defining portion of this system seems to be a relationship between a learner and an audio tape. Besides a school or university, I have also seen museums adopt the AT system. Headphones and devices loaded up with pre-recorded exhibit information has replaced the traditional museum guide. The visitor can walk up to almost any exhibit in no specific order, then proceed to insert a number on the device to instantly activate an explanation or background on the exhibit.

Upsides to the AT approach are flexible pacing and autonomy for the learner, specifically in the ISS phase. One can rewind or fast forward a tape at one's own discretion. The downside is lack of instant feedback. Depending on how an AT is set up, the learner may or may not have access to immediate assistance. Discussions are saved for GAS or SAS. Like PSI, the ISS component of AT requires an amount of self-discipline on the learner's part.

To address Kulik and Cohen's analysis of AT compared to conventional learning, I do not find it surprising that AT either equals or slightly surpasses conventional methods in many respects. I might attribute this to the fact that not only does AT include synchronous, face-to-face time in GAS and SAS, there's an added dimension of ISS which relieves some students of the stress of face-to-face environments. However, I do not believe courses or programs can be completely automated. While role of the instructor has evolved to become more of a facilitator in online education, it would be harmful to take human interaction and discussion completely out of the equation.

Regarding material for learning foreign languages, I've observed that many commercial products are AT in nature. Foreign language study guides available in bookstores, for example, may be composed of a CD and textbook. The CD is usually a recording of one or a few narrators who may be bi-lingual. They give prompts for the learner to repeat a phrase or sentence. In the short term, this type of exercise gives the independent learner a chance to develop and practice the basics. But progress could plateau as the learner becomes more intellectually demanding. There are typically beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels for the study guides. Forking off to disciplines beyond "advanced" is something I have not noticed. Needless to say, there is more to learn beyond the "advanced" level, which could delve into more specific areas like language for business, creative writing, public speaking, etc. Learner needs should be anticipated and considered, and it could mean switching to a different learning system altogether.

References:

Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C. C., & Cohen, P. A. (1979). Research on audio-tutorial instruction: A meta-analysis of comparative studies. Research in Higher Education, 11(4), 321-341.

#1. Keller's PSI

When I first read about Keller's PSI, Personalized System of Instruction, it reminded me of a software program I used in middle school that taught me how to type on a computer. My objective was simple: learn to type quickly and efficiently. I learned a few key strokes and then did drills to test my aptitude. The lessons built on each other with progressively more key strokes. By the end of the program, I could type at least 60 words a minute using any letter, number, or symbol and without staring at my fingers on the keyboard. Though the format bears similarity to what I understand to be a PSI, the typing program is largely a lesson in the motor skills domain of Gagne's taxonomy. PSIs have been developed to encompass more higher-order thinking.

One quality that stands out in a PSI is being learner-oriented. Along with positive reinforcement and opportunities to engage with the material, the student is allowed to learn at his/her own pace. This is especially beneficial and encouraging to online learners with full time careers and/or a family responsibilities. However, I do have several concerns about self-pacing. First, it requires a great degree of self-discipline. Is it possible that a student, for some reason, may be learning at a pace that is too slow? An instructor should advise the student about expectations and possible consequences. Also, students with varying levels of knowledge may be difficult to place in a group environment for collaboration. I think a PSI program with independent studies can be more flexible to individual pacing. On the other hand, a program which involves interaction with other students should set some common learning goals.

I would recommend the PSI system for Chinese language instruction because I like how it focuses on mastering one level before progressing into the next. Language is very much about building a strong foundation, learning basic characters, constructing simple sentences, and then creating more complex ones. However, I would encourage the students to progress at a similar pace because interaction and dialogue is important for learning to speak the language. Students who all work up to a capacity of about 50 vocabulary words would be able to converse more comfortably and effectively with each other. As for tools and resources, audio and video examples of the language in use, video chat, voice chat, and instant messaging would enhance the interactive experience.

References:

Davis, R. L., & Ragsdale, K. M. (n.d.).  Design of an effective, Web-based, global learning environment using the Keller Plan.