#13. Learning Objects

Learning objects reminds me of the language learning program Rosetta Stone. It is a highly commercialized  product. The website offers demos but a purchase or subscription of the program is required in order to take full advantage of the features. From skimming their product page, the program integrates multimedia tools within the lessons with items like audio CD, headphones/microphone, live online chats with native speakers, games, and even a mobile companion on iPods and iPhones. To get a better idea of the program, I did experience the demo and found several things interesting: it's very interactive, the images are functional and appealing, and no translations were needed.

Rosetta Stone boasts lessons for a multitude of languages, which seems to follow the learning objects process of customizing learning theory to a variety of content. The program followed learning objects' procedural learning by first presenting information (hands-off), then allowing the student to respond with some guidance (do the next step), and finally giving the student an opportunity to arrive at the answer with little or no guidance (you-do-it) (Merrill, 1999, p.409). Furthermore, exercises give students instant feedback and wrong answers are "retained" and asked again until the student gives the correct one (Merrill, 1999, p.417).

A multimedia-rich program such as Rosetta Stone probably required years of research and a very knowledgeable, experienced team of experts to develop and implement. I think it would be difficult for most instructors to be involved in such a large-scale undertaking without the right amount of financial backing and manpower. However, open and enthusiastic collaboration is an initial step to understand the types of projects that can be explored.

Before Koppi's article, I did not fully understand the weight of the issue in regards to teachers' hesitation in sharing their teaching material. I am more inclined to think of "social responsibility" as a motivator, but it seems that a majority prefer a "reward" in the form of recognition or salary raises (Koppi, 2004, p.455). Considering the sacrifice of time and resources, rewards are realistic demands, but it is unfortunate if it becomes a dilemma that distracts teachers from pedagogical goals like offering students a quality learning experience. Administrators and the school system have a responsibility to discuss with teachers about the necessary investments and proper compensations.

References:

Koppi, T., Bogle, L., Hodgson, N., & Lavitt, N. (2004). Institutional use of learning objects: Lessons learned and future directions. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 13 (4), 449-463.

Merrill, M. D. (1999). Instructional transaction theory (ITT): Instructional design based on knowledge objects. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models (2nd ed., pp. 397-424). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#12. Cognitive Flexibility

As with other models that encourage real world experience, the Cognitive Flexibility model has great intentions even though it seems to be one of the more complicated to implement. Ill-structured knowledge, multiple representations, case-based scenarios, and complex situations are presented with CF models of learning. Epistemic cognition, which are perceptions that learners have about the nature of learning and structure of knowledge is also a primary consideration (Jacobson, 1995, p.304). CF is more concerned with knowledge construction and transfer rather than rote memorization (Jacobson, 1995, p.305).

From the CF lecture, an example on the various uses of the word "bat" helped me visualize how CF could be applied to foreign language courses. However, I am not sure how to further develop the CF model for foreign language instruction that could use it to the fullest potential. I do not think the CF would be the most ideal method for several reasons. Rote memorization is pertinent in some degree and presenting complex situations may confuse and discourage the student. Most of the decision making process in learning a language is linear; there are very limited number of ways to ask for someone's name in a conversation. As a result, the intensive effort needed for development of a CF could not be justified for a foreign language course.

Modern technology serves CF well with more appealing interfaces and improvements to issues of navigation and accessing information as addressed by Jonassen due to growing expertise in the industry (Jonassen, 1992, p.314) Take the EASE History Tour for example, it is wonderfully designed, with a simple yet pleasing layout. Though there is a large amount of content, the site does not seem cluttered.  Topics are clearly organized, and there is a library of lessons that pertain to each topic which instructors new to the site could use as a starting point.  The "Tour" page which gives explicit instructions on how to look for information and what icons mean is especially helpful to both instructors and students. To develop a CF, I think the bulk of the work would be invested in the planning stages, like designing the program blueprint, web development strategies, and collecting case study material. As technology and user preferences change, the site would need to be updated accordingly.

While CF provides a wealth of resources and problem solving opportunities, it seems less involved with interaction and hands-on learning than other models. I would suggest a live video chat with experts or even a video game simulation that can respond dynamically to a learner. Video game technology is very adept with user-friendliness and navigation components. Perhaps this area should be explored to facilitate the development of a computer or web-based course. Just as we consider the creation of learning-oriented TV programs, video games can be refashioned for educational purpose as well, if individuals and entities are willing to make the investment.

References:

Jonassen, D.H., Ambruso, D.R., & Olesen, J. (1992). Designing a hypertext on transfusion medicine using cognitive flexibility theory. Journal of Educational Multimedia & Hypermedia, 1(3), 309-322.

Jacobson, M.J., & Spiro. R.J. (1995). Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the transfer of complex knowledge: An empirical investigation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12(4), 301-333.

#11. Case-Based

Once an idea has taken hold of the brain it's almost impossible to eradicate. An idea that is fully formed - fully understood - that sticks; right in there somewhere.---from Inception

Since case-based learning associates with human memory and narrative story-telling, I could not resist a reference to "Inception" an inventive film about ideas, memory, and perceptions. In some ways, the quote is true. Whether it's an idea, memory, or a story, I think it will "take hold of the brain" if it is truly significant and intriguing to the person. However, if we do not value or use the information, we are likely to forget it.

To imitate the way that natural human memory works, the CBR approach gathers and organizes information through indexing. Criteria is set on what information to include and where it belongs. To utilize the indexed database, the CBR process is composed of four REs---REtrieve, REuse, REvise, and REtain (Wang, 2003, p. 46). The learner views the case study and evaluates it with the current situation. Then the learner may choose to use the solution from the case study or decide on a better one. Finally, the new problem and solution is added to the case library. Jonassen mentions that "stories can function as a substitute for direct experience" for novice learners (Jonassen, 1992, p. 69). While it may be good preliminary practice, I do not think students should be led to become completely reliant on second hand knowledge. Every situation has its variables and learning vicariously lacks the full sensory experience. They should still be encouraged to engage in the experience first hand at some point, as with Problem-Based Learning and Cognitive Apprenticeships.

Perhaps one of the challenges of developing a case-based course is determining the appropriate material to include within the case library and an efficient system easily accessible to the learner and manageable for the instructor. A lesson can be learned from the KITE CBR Engine where the formative evaluation showed that knowledge scouts tasked with collecting stories "were not retrieving important information within the stories, such as resources used or lessons learned" (Wang, 2003, p. 57). Each member of the CBR project needs to have a solid understanding of their roles because it directly affects other member's tasks and the case library.

For a foreign language course, I imagine a case library as a collection of stories, both fiction and non-fiction, categorized by theme, such as home, school, eating at a restaurant or any situation that involves use of the language and also by difficulty to accommodate a range of learners from beginning to advanced levels. It is unique how the KITE CBR search engine is tailored to work like the human brain, generating results based on "semantic meanings of cases" instead of like Google and Yahoo sites which rely on number of keyword appearances that often return irrelevant content (Wang, 2003, p. 56). To create an intelligent search engine would require web development expertise. Otherwise, a simplified solution could be to populate the site with hyperlinks that connect the webpages and provide navigation. Video and speech to text tool can be incorporated with more complex narratives. After a student reviews a story, they can rewrite one based on their own experiences and upload it to the case library.

I think a case library can be a meaningful resource for both non-experts who want to learn from other professional perspectives and experts who need a review or reference. Problems and solutions are embedded in probably every industry and profession. Case-Based is a good approach to archive education for posterity.

References:

Jonassen, D.H., Ambruso, D.R., & Olesen, J. (1992). Designing a hypertext on transfusion medicine using cognitive flexibility theory. Journal of Education Multimedia & Hypermedia, 1 (3), 309-322.

Wang, F.K., Moore, J.L., Wedman, J., & Shyu, C.R. (2003). Developing a case-based reasoning knowledge repository to support a learning community: An example from the technology integration community. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52 (3), 45-62.

#10. MOST Multimedia

Specifically targeting literacy and reading comprehension in young children, I'm surprised how much the MOST Multimedia system speaks to me on a personal level. When I first attended public school, I could barely understand or speak English. It was a side effect of growing up in a Chinese family speaking mainly Cantonese. My parents prepared me as much as they could while struggling with English themselves.

For the first few years, I was probably an at-risk student, not able to keep up with the material and pace of the class as well as my peers did, so I can empathize with the attitudes and sentiments of students who are part of the MOST Multimedia programs. I did not have the opportunity to participate in such a program; computers were rarely used at the time. Fortunately, some very caring elementary school teachers tutored me one on one in English and saved me from my learning situation. Thanks to my teachers, my English competency was academically acceptable by second grade.

But...that's not the end of my story. I can also attest, from personal experience, the effectiveness of using multimedia to learn a language. Here's the twist: it was to learn Chinese, not English.

Despite the struggles with the English language, I remain proud of my Chinese heritage and continued speaking Cantonese with my family. When I was around thirteen, my parents installed a satellite dish that received Mandarin Chinese channels. I was enamored by the entertaining shows, so novel and different from American TV and yet strangely familiar. The problem was, I could not enjoy the channels to the full extent because I did not understand the Mandarin dialect at all.



To briefly explain the difference between Cantonese and Mandarin, they are two different dialects of Chinese. They have different tones and pronunciation but share the same written language. My parents grew up with Cantonese and learned Mandarin in school. They only spoke Cantonese with me because it was their native tongue.

Continuing on...instead of simply giving up the Mandarin channel, I decided to learn the language. Through watching the TV series with distinct characters and plot, I trained my ear to the languge and repeated bits and pieces of dialogue to myself. A vital component to this process was the Chinese subtitles in the shows. I matched them with Cantonese song lyrics in order to learn the meaning and develop reading comprehension. The written form was the bridge between Cantonese and Mandarin. I adopted a strategy to evaluate and categorize characters, like learning first those characters that appeared most frequently, next selecting combination characters that expressed one meaning, and then noticing the pattern of a complete sentence.

To me, learning Mandarin was like putting together a puzzle.

Though there was no lesson plan, I did have a learning goal: to understand the Chinese shows and maximize entertainment value! Eventually, I began to comprehend the distinctions and similarities between Mandarin and Cantonese. After about three years of this type of self-paced independent study, I was able to comprehend and enjoy Mandarin TV. When I encountered a new word, I saw it as a learning opportunity. This process brought me from knowing a handful of basic characters to being able to read an entire Chinese newspaper article.

Well, that's my story. The method was unconventional and I would not necessarily recommend it as a "program" for a student. However, I do believe that multimedia in the form of TV shows, video stories, and songs plus motivation and some sense of direction made it work for me. But there were some ways it did not work. While taking Mandarin Chinese courses in college, my reading and listening comprehension were well-developed but my speaking ability was quite weak. I think it was a result of the overly isolated learning environment, lack of collaboration, and no direct use of the language. This emphasizes the importance of dialogue practice and interaction with other individuals when learning a new language.

Referring back to the article, I agree with Bransford on the benefits of multimedia as a learning tool. Presented with dynamic visual information, students are able to create mental models and interpret language better than with plain text (Bransford, 1996, p.231). We should also understand the concerns associated with multimedia; video and movies for educational purposes should direct students towards being active rather than passive viewers (Bransford, 1996, p.228). Since the MOST Multimedia model has a very specific target audience, young children who are at-risk learners, the age, behaviors, and perhaps ethnic background need to be taken into consideration. Each case may be unique so I would recommend a pre-program evaluation of students before program development and implementation.

References:

Bransford, J. D., Sharp, D. M., Vye, N. J., Goldman, S. R., Hasselbring, T. S., Goin, L., O'Banion, K., Livernois, J., Saul, E., & the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1996). MOST Environments for accelerating literacy development. In S. Vosniadou, E. DeCorte, R. Glaser, & H. Mandl (Eds.), International perspectives on the design of technology-supported learning environments (pp. 223-255). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#9. STAR Legacy

Since the STAR legacy system stems from Anchored Instruction, it includes benefits similar to its predecessor.  The advantage of STAR legacy is its clearly defined structure that makes the process of planning an educational program more organized for instructional designers and instructors. I think instructors would find the STAR Legacy system approachable with potential to evolve into a variety of educational scenarios.

Schwartz opens with a discussion about the roles of the instructor and instructional designer in creating a program. There is need "to strike a balance" and share responsibilities instead of letting it all rest on one party, and the term used to describe the product of this partnership is "flexibly adaptive designs" (Schwartz, 1999, p.188). Such designs would be able to draw on respectively unique skills, expertise on multimedia applications and program functionality from instructional designers and content and pedagogical techniques from instructors.

A web-based environment seems quite natural for the STAR legacy system. Free website creators such as Google sites and Weebly make development of an entire program and archiving projects very feasible and economical. On the web, students work can "go public" through a published website, blogs, Google Docs, and online journals (Schwartz, 1999, p.203). The ability to revisit and share lessons is a great way to allow students to review and reflect on the material. This is helpful to many areas of study including foreign language. If I created a Chinese language course with the STAR Legacy system, I can develop it around many culturally relevant themes. However, it would not be completely in Chinese so as not to be too overwhelming and intimidating for students learning Chinese as a second language.

STAR Legacy has a consistent learning process which helps to reinforce student's understanding of course goals and what is expected of them. A meaningful challenge and appropriate use of multimedia are some factors that may determine if students maintain interest in the course.

References:

Schwartz, D., Lin, X., Brophy, S., & Bransford, J. D. (1999). Toward the development of flexibly adaptive instructional designs. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models (2nd ed., pp. 183-214). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#8. Anchored Instruction

Think outside the box---that is my impression of the goal for anchored instruction. Though it bears similarity to PBL, GBS, and probably other systems, several aspects of anchored instruction make it impressive and insightful. Implementation in various age groups, from first grade to college level, resulted in positive responses and reflects the system's versatility and relevance to a wide range of learners. Anchored instruction benefits both instructors and students. Very realistic situations are presented in the program, and there is opportunity to solve sophisticated problems that experts may encounter (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1992, p.248). The goal is to get the learner to start thinking like an expert, to promote "sustained exploration" and evolve their own knowledge as experts do. Thinking outside the box, so to speak.

Anchored instruction addresses many higher order thinking skills and prides on "macrocontext" or complex contexts that could be explored and revisited in multiple perspectives (Goldman, 1996, p.259). The learner should be able to transfer the knowledge and skills learned  to a variety of disciplines repeatedly, also known as "generative learning" (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1992, p.67). To take a very general example like "how to solve a problem", a student learns the procedures to take when faced with a problem such as define the issue, consider possible solutions and outcomes from the solutions, and select the best solution. This particular problem solving skill can be administered in all types of situations.

Video technology is the driving tool for the anchored instruction system, and it is appropriate to the learning goals and purpose. However, conception, copywriting, design, and production of the videos contribute to the bulk of the positive educational experience so those tasks should not be taken lightly. The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University sums up why video is used very succinctly: video is "dynamic, visual, and spatial" and may help students "form rich, mental models of the problem situations" (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1992, p.249). Since it is not possible for an expert to be at a student's disposal throughout their education, video is a good compromise as it also has the ability to reach a wide audience. Today we have even more flexibility with how to share and redistribute video with course webpages, websites, and file sharing sites.

The articles focused on anchored instruction programs developed for math and science. How it would apply to other subject areas would require some thought. The "Scientist in Action" series mentioned in the readings gives me the idea to consider something similar for foreign language lessons. Episodic scenarios can be created that build on one another in the areas of vocabulary, grammar, and cultural information. Topics for a beginner can be a student's first visit to China or a Chinese family's home. For more advanced students, the scenarios can be more complex. By participating in the constructed scenarios, students would be able to immerse themselves in the language and to internalize instead of just translate the language. The video medium works perfectly for foreign language instruction. I think students can better associate vocabulary with images rather than plain text. A dictionary would be provided as part of the reference materials and it encourages the student to find information independently.

Construction of a strong program is key in order to elicit the desired responses and active participation from students and instructors. It seems that anchored instruction programs like "The Jasper Woodbury Series" and "The Overturned Tank" have been well-received. Evidently, the amount of planning and design put into them has paid off. Furthermore, the program developers were interested in and listened to stakeholder feedback and suggestions. They responded quickly and followed up with improvements to the system which shows that evaluation is also important to the entire development process.

References:

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1992). The Jasper experiment: An exploration of issues in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40(1), 65-80.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1992). Anchored instruction in science and mathematics:
Theoretical basis, developmental projects, and initial research findings. In R. A. Duschl, & R. J. Hamilton (Eds.), Philosophy of science, cognitive psychology, and educational theory and practice (pp. 244-273). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Goldman, S. R., Petrosino, A. J., Sherwood, R. D., Garrison, S., Hickey, D., & Bransford, J. D. (1996). Anchoring science instruction in multimedia learning environments. In E. De Corte, R. Glaser, H. Mandl, & S. Vosniadou (Eds.), International Perspectives on the Design of Technology-Supported Learning Environments (pp. 257-284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#7. Goal Based Scenarios

Being offered the chance to learn in a way that motivates and provides opportunity for real life practice, as with the GBS system, makes me wonder why I was not educated that way my entire life. The system calls on higher level thinking skills for tasks such as processing one's role, the cover story, and the mission, and making critical decisions in scenario operations.  I recall very few GBS experiences in my education. However, I will refrain from wondering why not. There are probably valid reasons why GBS programs may be administered infrequently in traditional education.

After observing the various programs, such as the Sickle Cell Counselor and the Statistics Specialist, I  believe that GBS is the most complex learning system for instructors and designers to develop. It involves multimedia applications such as video and audio. Furthermore, the media is interactive and multiple scenarios and outcomes need to be created for the learner to choose from. This is definitely a very intensive process. If it is to be executed successfully, a team may also be established to evaluate and test the program. One of the paper's authors Chung-Yuan Hsu has a background in game design, and I can see how that would be relevant and applicable to GBS development. The amount of resources, manpower, and time to invest in a GBS program should not be underestimated.

The learner is again the primary focus in this system. Schank states that motivation and interest play a big  part in how well the student learns. The lesson shifts away from factual knowledge to more about learning how to do (Schank, 1999, p.166). It equips students with the skills to handle realistic situations that they may possibly encounter. Given these efforts to engage the learner, GBS goes beyond artificial motivators for learning such achieving grades and adhering to social situations and strives to make learning an intrinsic, personally meaningful experience.

I think GBS, if successfully created, is a flexible, multifaceted system that can be used across all disciplines. A realistic role within any subject matter can always be defined for the learner. As Schank explains, stories that build up the topic are much more memorable to learners than decontextualized information on the topic (Schank, 1999, p.177). In Chinese language class, a lesson begins with a list of vocabulary. It is then applied in dialogue practices, short paragraphs, and cultural supplements, which is much more effective than rote learning of only the vocabulary. Keeping with the goals of GBS, it's necessary to ensure that students are interested in the pre-written texts. Composing new passages is also an option.

Technology-wise, there are many capable tools to create video and audio for GBS programs but consideration should be extended to include interactivity. Computer games are ideal but require programming, writing, graphic design, art direction, and a combination of many other specialized skills to create them. Second life may be the most well-known computer game to date that is used for educational purposes.

References:

Schank, R.C., Berman, T.R., & Macpherson, K.A. (1999). Learning by doing. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models (2nd ed., pp. 162-182). Mahwah, NJ. Erlbaum.